Nestled within the arid expanses of the Turfan Basin, a remarkable cave complex provides a unique glimpse into the intersection of art, religion, and meditation practices in ancient China. Toyok (Tuyugou) Cave 20, located in the desert of Xinjiang, is home to one of the earliest and most significant examples of Pure Land Buddhist art, with illustrations rooted in the Visualization Sūtra, a key text for Pure Land practitioners. This cave, dating back to the late sixth century, stands as a testament to the devotional practices and the intricate relationship between text and image in Buddhist meditation.

The Visualization Sūtra, central to the Pure Land tradition, guides practitioners through a series of visualizations designed to attain rebirth in Sukhāvatī, the Western Pure Land of Amitābha Buddha. The mural paintings on the left wall of Cave 20 are among the earliest known visual representations of these meditative practices. As Dr. Yi Zhao from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University explains, these murals were not merely decorative; they were integral to the spiritual exercises conducted within the cave, providing visual cues to aid monks in their meditation. Dr. Zhao’s study, published in Religions, highlights how these images functioned as a meditation manual, with each scene carefully curated to assist practitioners in visualizing the key elements of the Visualization Sūtra.

Dr. Zhao notes, “By examining the iconography of each square-shaped unit of the painting on the left wall of the cave, I argue that this painting features the first seven visualizations, as well as the twelfth visualization, taught in the Visualization Sūtra.” This detailed analysis underscores the importance of the murals in guiding practitioners through the complex visualizations required for rebirth in Sukhāvatī.

The murals of Cave 20 depict several of the “Thirteen Visualizations” outlined in the sutra, including the Jeweled Towers, Jeweled Ponds, and the Lotus Seat, among others. These visualizations were crucial for practitioners aiming to cleanse their karma and achieve spiritual purity necessary for rebirth in Sukhāvatī. The images on the left wall are particularly notable for their detailed portrayal of these visualizations. For instance, the Jeweled Pond visualization, featuring intricate depictions of flowing water and lotus flowers, is designed to help meditators imagine the serene environment of the Pure Land. Similarly, the Lotus Seat visualization, with its suspended banners and radiating jewels, provides a visual anchor for practitioners to focus their meditation on the magnificent throne of Amitābha Buddha.

The study also explores the complex iconography and the structural design of the cave, revealing how the murals were strategically placed to guide the meditation process. Dr. Zhao states, “These images and inscriptions were based on the Visualization Sūtra, yet they are not simply a pictorial transliteration of the sutra together with textual excerpts from it.” The monks would begin their meditation facing the right wall, which depicts scenes of impure contemplation—an essential preliminary step to purify the mind before engaging in Pure Land visualizations. Once prepared, they would turn to the left wall to engage in the visualizations that lead to the final goal of rebirth in the Pure Land, as symbolized by the lotus ponds on the rear wall.

Dr. Zhao’s research not only highlights the religious significance of these murals but also provides insights into the broader cultural and historical context of the region. The Toyok Grottoes, part of the larger network of Buddhist sites in the Turfan area, reflect the confluence of various cultural influences, including Chinese, Central Asian, and Indian traditions. The murals of Cave 20, with their blend of local artistic styles and Buddhist iconography, exemplify the rich cultural exchanges that took place along the Silk Routes.

“This paritially collapsed cave in the desert of Chinese Central Asia deserves attention as it is the only material existence that tells us about the early form of the Visualization Sutra as well as the practices adopted by people to pursue rebirth in the Western Pure Land, in a region where this apocryphal sutra was believed to be complied”  said Dr. Zhao.

The findings from this study underscore the importance of preserving such historical sites, which offer invaluable insights into the religious practices and artistic achievements of ancient civilizations. Dr. Zhao emphasizes the urgency of preservation, noting, “Nowadays, the mural paintings there are in severe condition. Some of the paintings that will be discussed in this paper no longer exist in situ, both due to natural erosion and looting activities in the 19th and 20th centuries.” The study serves as a call to action for further preservation efforts, ensuring that these cultural treasures remain accessible for future generations to study and appreciate.

In conclusion, Toyok (Tuyugou) Cave 20 stands as a crucial link in the history of Buddhist art and meditation practices. The careful analysis of the murals by Dr. Yi Zhao and the contextual understanding of their role in meditation practices offer a deeper appreciation of this ancient site. This research not only sheds light on the religious life of the past but also enriches our understanding of the cultural dynamics that shaped the development of Buddhist art in the region.


Journal Reference

Zhao, Yi. “Toyok (Tuyugou) Cave 20: A Pure Land Cave Temple in the Desert with the Earliest Illustrations of the Visualization Sūtra.” Religions 15 (2024): 576. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15050576

Image Gallery

Please click on the image to see larger.

Fig. 1 South Wall Mural, Toyok Cave 20. From Zhongguo Meishu Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui ed. Xinjiang Shiku Bihua (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1989), 169.
Fig. 2 Diagram of the middle (II) and lower (III) registers of the painting on the left wall, Cave 20, Toyok. From Miyaji, “Turufan, Toyoku sekkutsu no zenkankutsu hekiga nit suite: Jōdozu, Jōdo kansōzu, fujō kansōzu,” Pt. 1. Bukkyō geijutsu 221, (1995): plate 3.
Fig. 3, Main (west) wall, Toyok Cave 20. From Yamabe, “Toyok Cave 20: Paintings and Inscriptions,” Figure 2, in Epigraphic Evidence in the Premodern Buddhist World, edited by Kurt Tropper, 217-262 (Vienna: Arbeitskris für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studienm Universitat Wien, 2014).
Fig.4 North Wall, Toyok Cave 20. From Zhongguo Meishu Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui ed. Xinjiang Shiku Bihua (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1989), 170.
Fig. 5 Jeweled Tower, II1, south wall, Toyok Cave 20. From Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu bianweihui, Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu diliu juan: Bozikelike shiku (Wulumuqi: Xinjiang meishu sheying chubanshe: 2009), 43.
Fig. 6 Jeweled Pond, III1. Detail of Figure 1.
Fig. 7 Lotus Seat-2, III2. Detail of Figure 1.
Fig. 8 Lotus Seat-1, II2. Detail of Figure 1.
Fig. 9 Jeweled Tree-3, II3. From Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu bianweihui, Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu diliu juan: Bozikelike shiku (Wulumuqi: Xinjiang meishu sheying chubanshe: 2009), 42.
Fig. 10 Jewel Tree-2, III3. From Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu bianweihui, Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu diliu juan: Bozikelike shiku (Wulumuqi: Xinjiang meishu sheying chubanshe: 2009), 42.
Fig. 11 Jeweled Tree-1, II5. Detail of Figure 1.
Fig. 12 Jeweled Ground, II4. From Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu bianweihui, Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu diliu juan: Bozikelike shiku (Wulumuqi: Xinjiang meishu sheying chubanshe: 2009), 42.
Fig. 13 Wall Painting fragment collected from Toyok by Aurel Stein. From Miyaji, “Turufan, Toyoku sekkutsu no zenkankutsu hekiga nit suite: Jōdozu, Jōdo kansōzu, fujō kansōzu” Pt. 3, Bukkyō geijutsu 226, (1996): plate 30.
Fig. 14 Wall Painting fragment collected from Toyok by Aurel Stein. From Miyaji, “Turufan, Toyoku sekkutsu no zenkankutsu hekiga nit suite: Jōdozu, Jōdo kansōzu, fujō kansōzu,” Pt. 1. Bukkyō geijutsu 221, (1995): plate 22a.
Fig. 15 One’s Own Rebirth in Sukhavati-1, III4. From Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu bianweihui, Zhongguo xinjiang bihua yishu diliu juan: Bozikelike shiku (Wulumuqi: Xinjiang meishu sheying chubanshe: 2009), 42
Fig. 16 One’s Own Rebirth in Sukhavati-2, III5. From Yamabe, “Toyok Cave 20: Paintings and Inscriptions,” Figure 16, in Epigraphic Evidence in the Premodern Buddhist World, edited by Kurt Tropper, 217-262 (Vienna: Arbeitskris für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studienm Universitat Wien, 2014).
Fig. 17 Impure Visualizations, western end of the bottom level of north wall, Cave 20. Detail of Figure 4.
Fig. 18 Half-skeleton figure with meditator, Toyok Cave 42. From Greene, “Death in a Cave: Meditation, Deathbed Ritual, and Skeletal Imagery at Tape Shotor,” Artibus Asiae 73, no. 2 (2013): plate 6.
Fig.19 Left side of main wall, reconstructed by Yamabe, with painting fragment from State Hermitage. From Yamabe, “Toyok Cave 20: Paintings and Inscriptions,” Figure 4, in Epigraphic Evidence in the Premodern Buddhist World, edited by Kurt Tropper, 217-262 (Vienna: Arbeitskris für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studienm Universitat Wien, 2014).
Fig. 20 Jewel ponds on the main wall, detail of State Hermitage Fragment. From Yamabe, “Toyok Cave 20: Paintings and Inscriptions,” Figure 11, in Epigraphic Evidence in the Premodern Buddhist World, edited by Kurt Tropper, 217-262 (Vienna: Arbeitskris für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studienm Universitat Wien, 2014).
Fig. 21 Painting on the main wall, 5th c., Cave 42 Toyok. From Yamabe, “Toyok Cave 20: Paintings and Inscriptions,” Figure 8, in Epigraphic Evidence in the Premodern Buddhist World, edited by Kurt Tropper, 217-262 (Vienna: Arbeitskris für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studienm Universitat Wien, 2014).

About the Author

Dr. Zhao is Assistant Professor (Research) of Chinese Material Culture and Museum Studies at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He obtained his PhD in Art History from the University of Kansas in 2023. He mainly works on the Buddhist visual materials and heritages in China before the Tang dynasty (ca. 1st – 6th c.), with an emphasis on its collision and fusion with early Chinese funerary art as well as interactions between Buddhism and various local cultures along the Silk Routes especially the understudied Central Asian area. 

His articles have/will appear on prestigious journals such as Archives of Asian Art, Artibus Asiae, Religions and etc. His current book project titled “Resonation between Temples and Tombs: Art, Beliefs and Practices of Heavens and Pure Lands in Early Medieval China (2nd to 6th century)” has been awarded a three-year grant by the University Grants Committee of Hong Kong under the General Research Fund scheme.